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What is Blindness and Low Vision?
Blindness encompasses a range of visual impairments, from legal blindness (where a person may perceive only light and dark) to total blindness (complete absence of vision). People who are blind often rely on mobility aids such as white canes or guide dogs and use non-visual methods to access information.
Low Vision refers to a condition where a person has some usable sight, but it is not sufficient for daily activities like reading or driving without assistance. Individuals with low vision may struggle with recognizing distant images, distinguishing between similar colors, or seeing in certain lighting conditions. Vision cannot be fully corrected by glasses, contact lenses, medication, or surgery.
Legal Blindness (in the U.S. and Canada) typically means visual acuity of 20/200 or worse in the better eye with corrective lenses, or a visual field of 20 degrees or less. This definition determines eligibility for certain services and resources.
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Clinical Definitions
According to the World Health Organization (WHO) and medical literature:
- Visual Impairment: Presenting visual acuity worse than 20/40 (At 20 feet away, they can only read letters that normal vision sees from 40 feet away) in the stronger eye, even with glasses/contacts optimized for distance vision
- Low Vision: Visual acuity between 20/40 and 20/200, or substantial visual field loss (less than 20 degrees)
- Blindness: Visual acuity worse than 20/200 in the stronger eye with glasses/contacts optimized for distance vision, or very restricted visual field
- Total Blindness: No light perception; complete absence of vision
Ontario Educational Context
Under Ontario's Special Education framework, students with visual impairments may be formally identified as exceptional by an Identification, Placement, and Review Committee (IPRC) under the category of "Physical: Visual Impairment" or may receive special education services without formal identification based on assessed needs.
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Global and National Statistics
Global Prevalence: The World Health Organization estimates approximately 2.2 billion people worldwide have vision impairment or blindness. In children aged 1-14 years, the global prevalence of distance and/or near vision impairment is approximately 2.8%.
Canada: According to Statistics Canada's Canadian Survey on Disability (CSD) 2017 (published 2022):
• 2.2 million Canadians (6.5% of population aged 15+) have a seeing disability (difficulty seeing even with glasses/contacts).
• 1.5 million self-identify with sight loss; another 5.59 million have eye conditions risking sight loss.
• Among people with any disability (6.2 million), ~18% report seeing impairment.
• 1.2 million living with vision loss (3.2% of population), projected to 2 million by 2050.
Note: Limited national data exists for Canadian children aged 0-14 specifically, as Statistics Canada's main surveys focus on 15+ due to self-reporting challenges with young kids.
United States: The 2023 American Community Survey estimated approximately 625,000 children with vision difficulty in the U.S. According to the American Printing House for the Blind (2023), there were 54,962 students who were legally blind registered to use APH services in educational settings.
School-Age Children: Global studies show prevalence rates varying by assessment method:
- Based on uncorrected visual acuity: 7.26% (20/60 or worse)
- Based on presenting visual acuity: 3.82% (20/60 or worse)
- Based on best-corrected visual acuity: 1.67%
- Blindness prevalence: 0.17%
Estimated Visual Impairment Prevalence by Age Group
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Diagnosis Procedures
If a visual impairment is suspected, a thorough eye examination should be completed by a licensed ophthalmologist or optometrist. The diagnostic process typically includes:
Visual Acuity Testing
Measures how clearly a person can see at various distances using standardized charts (Snellen or LogMAR). If vision is worse than 20/70 even with correction, low vision may be diagnosed.
Visual Field Testing
Evaluates peripheral vision, often affected by conditions like glaucoma or retinitis pigmentosa. Patient focuses centrally while responding to lights in different field areas.
Contrast Sensitivity Test
Checks ability to distinguish objects from backgrounds and differentiate between shades of gray in various lighting conditions.
Ocular Health Exam
Examines eye structure to identify diseases causing vision loss: macular degeneration, diabetic retinopathy, cataracts, or congenital conditions.
Functional Vision Assessment
Detailed patient history to understand how vision loss affects daily activities, informing personalized treatment and educational planning.
Low Vision Assessment
Determines how to maximize remaining vision; conducted by optometrist at clinic or home to identify useful optical aids and strategies.
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Eye Care Specialists
- Ophthalmologist: Physician specializing in diagnosis and treatment of eye defects and diseases; can prescribe lenses, perform surgery, and use medical treatments
- Optometrist: Licensed specialist who examines eyes for disease, measures refractive errors and muscle disturbances; can prescribe and fit lenses
- Orthoptist: Specialist trained in eye exercises for muscle imbalance, amblyopia, diplopia; works with ophthalmologists and optometrists
- Optician: Technician who fits, designs, and dispenses lenses according to prescriptions; fits contact and spectacle lenses
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Leading Causes in Children and Youth
The most common causes of visual impairment in school-age children include:
- Refractive Errors (77.20%): Myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism - most common and often correctable with glasses
- Amblyopia (7.60%): "Lazy eye" - reduced vision in one eye due to abnormal visual development
- Congenital Cataracts (0.60%): Clouding of lens present at birth
- Retinal Disorders: Including retinopathy of prematurity, retinitis pigmentosa
- Corneal Opacities: Scarring or clouding of the cornea
- Glaucoma: Increased eye pressure damaging optic nerve
- Cortical Visual Impairment (CVI): Vision loss due to brain damage rather than eye damage
- Albinism: Genetic condition causing low vision and light sensitivity
Educational Implication
The cause of visual impairment significantly affects educational planning. Students with central vision loss (e.g., macular degeneration) have different needs than those with peripheral field loss (e.g., glaucoma, retinitis pigmentosa). Understanding the specific visual condition guides appropriate accommodations, learning media selection, and instructional strategies.
| Field |
Information |
| Student Name |
Y, YY (anonymized) |
| OEN |
123456789 |
| Date of Birth |
September 5, 1998 |
| Gender |
Male |
| Current Grade |
Grade 10 |
| School Year |
2013–14 |
| School Type |
Secondary |
| School |
Secondary School |
| Student identified as exceptional by IPRC |
✓ Yes |
| IPRC Date |
October 5, 2013 |
| Exceptionality |
Physical: Blind and Low Vision |
| Placement |
Regular class with resource assistance |
| Placement Date |
March 9, 2013 |
| Working Toward |
Ontario Secondary School Diploma (OSSD) |
| Assessment Type |
Date |
Summary of Results |
| School-Based Structured Observation (Itinerant SERT – Vision) |
November 23, 2012 |
Student independently seeks teacher assistance for accommodations and asks peers for clarification. Accesses accommodations in class and in leisure areas of the school. |
| Board Benchmark Assessment |
September 27, 2012 |
Academic results (Language and Mathematics) at Levels 3 and 4 on the provincial achievement chart. |
| Orientation and Mobility Assessment |
August 21, 2012 |
White cane and auditory travel skills for school and community are necessary for safe and independent mobility. |
| Medical Report |
May 30, 2011 |
Bilateral microphthalmos and history of bilateral retinal detachments; vision reduced to light perception in both eyes. |
Areas of Strength
- Writing skills
- Knowledge of Braille code
- Self-advocacy skills
- Self-efficacy skills
- Orientation and mobility skills (within familiar environments)
Areas of Need
- Organizational skills
- Editing and revision of written work in Braille
- Technology access skills (file management, device use)
- Nemeth code to access mathematics and science curricula
| Subject / Course |
Course Code |
Accommodated Only |
Modified |
Alternative |
| English |
ENG2D1 |
✓ |
|
|
| Mathematics |
MPM2D1 |
✓ |
|
|
| Learning Strategies |
GLE2O |
✓ |
|
|
| History |
CHC2D1 |
✓ |
|
|
| Health and Physical Education |
PPL2O |
✓ |
|
|
| Civics |
CHV2O1 |
✓ |
|
|
| Music |
AMI2O1 |
✓ |
|
|
| Science |
SNC2D1 |
✓ |
|
|
| Orientation and Mobility – Expanded Core Curriculum |
(Alternative Skill Area) |
|
|
✓ |
| Technology Use |
(Alternative Skill Area) |
|
|
✓ |
Note: Academic subjects follow grade-level Ontario curriculum with accommodations only. Orientation and Mobility and Technology Use are alternative programs within the Expanded Core Curriculum for students who are blind or low vision.
| Type of Service |
Frequency or Intensity |
Location |
| Itinerant teacher – Blind / Low Vision (ISERT – Vision) |
Daily (September–June) |
Classroom and resource room |
| Orientation and Mobility personnel |
Weekly (September–June) |
School and community environment |
| Special Education Resource Teacher (SERT) |
Weekly consultation with teachers (September–June) |
Classroom and resource room |
| Teacher Assistant |
Daily (September–June) |
School and community environment |
| Transcriber |
Weekly (September–June) |
Resource room |
| Guidance Counsellor |
Transition planning annually |
Guidance office |
Long-term Goal: Student will graduate from secondary school with an Ontario Secondary School Diploma, leading to post-secondary studies at a university in the area of Sports Management.
| Actions |
Persons Responsible |
Timeline |
| Determine location for assistive equipment, storage, and process to access. |
Itinerant SERT (Vision), SERT, Student |
Grade 9 and annually |
| Orientation and Mobility instructor works with student during the last week of summer to reorient him to new classroom locations. |
SERT, O&M instructor, Itinerant SERT |
Each year |
| Consult with Guidance to determine post-secondary program requirements and select Grade 11/12 options (record in IPP). |
Parents, Student, Guidance |
January of Grade 10 and annually |
| As part of IPP, research and visit post-secondary institutions to determine available supports. |
Parents, Student |
Summer after Grade 10 |
| Determine Orientation and Mobility goals for transitions (new semesters, school years, graduation). |
Student, Parents, O&M, Itinerant SERT, SERT |
Annually |
| Meet with post-secondary offices for students with disabilities to review options and record in IPP. |
Student, Parents, Post-secondary support staff (Accessible Services) |
Summer of Grade 11 |
| Determine equipment and documentation needs for post-secondary applications and add to IPP. |
Student, Parents, SERT, Itinerant SERT (Vision), Guidance Counsellor |
Fall of Grade 12 |
| Consultation with Ontario Blind Sports Association for specific adaptations in Physical Education and Track and Field. |
Physical Education teacher/coach, ISERT (Vision) |
Annually |
Note on Visual Impairment IEPs
This sample IEP illustrates how Ontario schools plan for a student who is blind with light perception only, using Braille, orientation and mobility training, and alternative ECC goals alongside grade-level academic expectations.
Accommodations vs. Modifications
Accommodations are changes and supports that enable access to the same curriculum and education as other students without changing learning expectations. Modifications change the level or expectations of assignments or curriculum. Most students with visual impairments succeed with accommodations alone.
Accessible Materials
Braille materials, large print textbooks, audio recordings, digital text (accessible PDFs, ePub files), tactile graphics for diagrams and maps
Assistive Technology
Screen readers (JAWS, NVDA), text-to-speech software, speech-to-text software, braille displays, magnification software (ZoomText), closed-circuit television (CCTV)
Verbalization
Teacher verbalizes all board writing, projector content, visual demonstrations. Describes visual elements explicitly ("The graph shows...").
Advance Materials
Student receives advance copy of materials in preferred format (braille, large print, digital) before class to preview content
Note-Taking Support
Assigned note taker, copies of teacher notes or peer notes (digital or photocopy), recorded lectures, graphic organizers
Hands-On Learning
Real objects, tactile models, hand-under-hand exploration technique, manipulatives for abstract concepts
Preferential Seating
Close to board/presentations, facing away from windows to reduce glare, access to electrical outlets for assistive technology, space for equipment
Lighting Adjustments
Task lighting (desk lamps, floor lamps, spotlighting), light filters on fluorescent lights, elimination/reduction of glare, positioning away from/toward natural light based on need
Contrast Enhancement
High-contrast materials (black on white or white on black), contrasting trays/mats for materials, yellow tape on stair edges, bold high-contrast board writing
Organized Space
Clear pathways (clutter-free, at least 36 inches wide), predictable item placement, landmarks for orientation, secure cords and rug edges
Reduced Background Noise
Noise-canceling headphones available, quieter testing location, reduction of visual/auditory distractions
Mobility Supports
Use of white cane, accessible locker (lower, easy-access, key lock instead of combination), consistent classroom layout
Extended Time
Time and a half or double time for tests/assignments, consideration for adaptive equipment use, breaks to reduce fatigue from scanning/reading
Alternative Format
Braille tests, large print assessments, digital text for screen reader access, oral testing, use of scribe for written responses
Response Format
Oral responses instead of written, bold-line or raised-line paper, computer/tablet use, modified output (shorter assignments covering essential content)
Setting Changes
Separate quiet location, individual administration, access to assistive technology, optimized lighting conditions
Provincial Assessments
Permitted accommodations on EQAO and other standardized tests: braille, large print, assistive technology, reader, scribe, extended time (verify current EQAO guidelines)
Accommodations are assumed to be the same for all program areas unless otherwise indicated.
| Instructional Accommodations |
Environmental Accommodations |
Assessment Accommodations |
- Braille for all subjects, including Mathematics (Nemeth code)
- Braille writer for classroom work
- Tactile graphics and illustrations to support conceptual understanding
- BrailleNote with speech synthesizer for accessing print and digital text
- Text-to-speech software for digital materials
- Verbal description of visual information (diagrams, demonstrations, media)
- Reference binder of posted visuals (e.g., anchor charts) in accessible formats
|
- Physical accessibility within school (routes clear of obstacles)
- Orientation and mobility support for navigating school and community
- Increased storage and desk space for specialized equipment
- Preferential locker position close to key learning spaces
- Strategic seating to optimize access to instruction and peers
- Consistent furniture placement to support safe independent navigation
|
- Braille versions of assessments
- Use of Braille writer for written responses
- Use of assistive technology (BrailleNote, computer with speech output)
- Verbatim scribing of responses when required
- Tactile graphics and illustrations for diagrams, charts, and maps
- Pictures and visual stimuli described in detail by teacher or scribe
- Additional time (up to double) for major assessments and provincial tests
|
Link to Assessment Practices
These accommodations align with the student’s provincial assessment plan (OSSLT), including small-group or individual setting, Braille presentations, technology-based responses, and extended time, as outlined in the original IEP.
Implementation Principle
Accommodations should be: (1) Based on individual student needs identified through assessment, (2) Documented in the IEP, (3) Consistently implemented across all classes, (4) Regularly reviewed and adjusted based on effectiveness. Students should be taught to self-advocate for their accommodations and use them independently whenever possible.
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Essential Assessments for Students with Visual Impairments
Three specialized assessments are critical for educational planning:
Functional Vision Assessment (FVA)
Assesses functional acuities, visual field loss, eye motor control, eye-hand coordination, and how the student uses vision in real-world tasks. Guides environmental modifications and instructional strategies.
Learning Media Assessment (LMA)
Determines the most appropriate learning medium: braille, print, dual media (braille and print), auditory strategies, or combination. Critical for literacy instruction planning.
Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC) Assessment
Evaluates skills unique to students with visual impairments: compensatory academic skills, orientation and mobility, social interaction, independent living, recreation/leisure, career education, use of assistive technology, sensory efficiency, self-determination.
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General Assessment Principles
- Material Adaptations: Provide assessments in student's preferred medium (braille, large print, audio, digital text)
- Environmental Adaptations: Adjust time allotment, location, lighting, seating
- Process Over Product: Focus on understanding and application, not speed of visual processing
- Multiple Formats: Offer choice in how students demonstrate knowledge (oral, written, demonstration, project)
- Validity Considerations: Ensure adaptations don't change what's being assessed; simply remove barriers to access
- Standardized Test Cautions: Students with visual impairments often not in standardization samples; interpret scores cautiously with performance analysis
Verbal Response Systems
Oral questioning, think-pair-share with verbal reporting, audio recorded reflections. Allows immediate demonstration of understanding without visual processing barriers.
Tactile Demonstrations
Student creates tactile models, uses manipulatives to show understanding, demonstrates procedures hand-under-hand with teacher.
Digital Exit Tickets
Students submit responses via accessible digital platforms (Google Forms with screen reader, voice typing). Enables quick formative checks.
Audio Conferencing
One-on-one verbal check-ins, small group discussions, recorded student explanations of learning. Rich formative data about understanding.
Peer Assessment
Structured peer feedback protocols using accessible rubrics. Students verbalize feedback or use accessible digital commenting tools.
Self-Assessment Checklists
Accessible digital checklists (screen reader compatible) or braille/large print. Develops metacognition and self-monitoring.
Oral Examinations
Student responds verbally to questions, explains reasoning, defends answers. Assess deep understanding without writing/reading barriers. Record for documentation.
Portfolio Assessment
Collection of student work in accessible formats. Include audio recordings, tactile creations, accessible digital files. Shows growth over time.
Performance Tasks
Authentic demonstrations: science lab with verbal description, solving real-world math problems using assistive technology, delivering presentations.
Project-Based Assessment
Extended projects allowing choice in presentation format: audio documentary, tactile model with description, accessible website, braille report.
Adapted Written Tests
Tests in preferred format (braille, large print, digital). Use assistive technology. Provide extended time. Focus on content, not visual processing speed.
Multimodal Presentations
Student presents learning using multiple modes: verbal explanation + tactile materials, audio + description, accessible digital slides + narration.
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Science Assessment
- Labs: Partner with sighted peer; student verbalizes observations; use talking thermometers, accessible measuring tools; tactile diagrams for setup
- Diagrams: Provide raised-line diagrams, tactile graphics, or detailed verbal descriptions; student can verbally describe instead of drawing
- Data Analysis: Use accessible spreadsheet software with screen reader; talking calculators; present data in tables rather than graphs (or provide tactile graphs)
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Mathematics Assessment
- Problem Solving: Provide problems in accessible format; allow use of abacus, talking calculator, or accessible math software (MathML)
- Geometry: Use tactile shapes, geoboards, 3D models; student describes properties verbally or in braille/large print
- Graphs/Charts: Provide tactile graphs, accessible digital graphing tools, or assess graph interpretation through verbal description
- Show Work: Accept audio explanations of reasoning or computer-typed steps; braille nemeth code for advanced math notation
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English/Literacy Assessment
- Reading Comprehension: Provide texts in preferred format (braille, audio, accessible digital); assess through verbal discussion, audio-recorded responses, or accessible written format
- Writing: Use assistive technology (screen reader, speech-to-text); braille writing; focus on content and ideas, not handwriting mechanics
- Annotations: Use digital annotation tools (screen reader accessible) or braille note-taking devices
- Visual Literacy: Provide detailed descriptions of images, graphics; assess interpretation through alternative means
Assessment Best Practice
Valid assessment of students with visual impairments requires: (1) Collaboration with Teacher of Visually Impaired (TVI) to ensure appropriate accommodations, (2) Focus on learning objectives, not incidental visual requirements, (3) Multiple assessment methods to triangulate evidence of learning, (4) Student choice in demonstration format when possible, (5) Documentation of assessment accommodations in IEP. The goal is to assess what the student knows and can do, removing barriers that visual impairment creates.
Verbalize Everything
Always verbalize what you write on the board, what's displayed on projector, gestures, and visual demonstrations. Use descriptive language: "The graph shows..." not "Look here."
Hands-On Learning
Provide real objects and tactile materials. Never assume background knowledge. Use hand-under-hand technique: place your hand under student's to guide exploration.
Maximize Contrast
Use high-contrast materials (black on white, white on black). Bold, big, simple visuals. Contrasting trays/mats. Yellow tape on stairs. Bright balls against floor color.
Consistent Organization
Keep classroom layout consistent. Clear pathways. Predictable item placement. Warn students before changes. Create landmarks for orientation.
Use Positional Language
Avoid "here," "there," pointing. Use specific directions: "The book is on the desk, left corner." Above/below, left/right, behind/in front of.
Identify Yourself
Always identify yourself when speaking to the student. Have classmates identify themselves in discussions. Don't assume the student knows who's talking.
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Literacy and Language Development
- Emergent Literacy: Provide hands-on experiences with real objects; talk about experiences before, during, and after; use story boxes with real objects/textures related to books
- Reading Instruction: Determine learning medium through LMA (braille, print, dual media, auditory); provide explicit phonological awareness instruction; use multi-sensory approaches (visual + tactile + auditory)
- Braille Literacy: Work with Teacher of Visually Impaired (TVI); provide daily consistent braille instruction; encourage pretend reading/writing; systematic contracted and uncontracted braille instruction
- Print Literacy (Low Vision): Large print materials; magnification tools; optimal lighting; high-contrast text; reading stands/slant boards; frequent breaks to reduce fatigue
- Vocabulary Development: Explicit instruction of incidental learning sighted peers acquire visually; real object exploration; detailed verbal descriptions; connect words to tactile experiences
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Mathematics Instruction
- Concrete Manipulatives: Use real objects for counting, sorting, patterns; tactile number lines; abacus for computation; 3D geometric shapes
- Spatial Concepts: Explicit instruction in spatial relationships often learned incidentally by sighted students; hands-on exploration of shapes, size, position
- Nemeth Braille Code: For advanced mathematics, student needs Nemeth Code training (TVI provides); maintains mathematical notation in braille
- Accessible Technology: Talking calculators; accessible graphing software; MathML for digital math content; screen readers with math support
- Verbal Problem Solving: Encourage verbal explanation of reasoning; audio-record problem-solving processes; emphasize understanding over visual presentation
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Science Education
- Inquiry-Based Learning: Traditionally used in Orientation & Mobility; apply to science instruction; students explore and make conclusions through non-visual senses
- Lab Safety: Clear verbal instructions; hand-under-hand demonstrations of procedures; tactile cues for equipment location; partner support; talking thermometers/measuring tools
- Observations: Multi-sensory observations (sound, smell, touch, temperature); partner describes visual changes; student records using assistive technology
- Models and Diagrams: 3D tactile models; raised-line diagrams; detailed verbal descriptions; student explores models hand-under-hand before independent use
- Data Collection: Accessible digital data collection tools; talking probes; partner collaboration; verbal description of graphs/charts
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Physical Education
- Orientation: Verbal description of gym layout; tactile exploration of boundaries and equipment; consistent setup; auditory cues (music, bells)
- Equipment Modifications: Bright-colored balls contrasting with floor; balls with bells inside; tactile markers on equipment; guide wires for running
- Instruction: Verbal descriptions of movements; hand-under-hand demonstration; partner/guide support; avoid relying on visual modeling alone
- Adapted Activities: Goalball, beep baseball, tandem cycling; consult with Adapted Physical Education specialist and O&M instructor
- Safety: Clear boundaries; warning before activities start; consistent routines; classmate guide support
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Multiple Means of Representation
- Provide content in multiple formats: text (braille, large print, digital), audio, tactile, video with audio description
- Use multi-sensory presentation: visual + verbal + tactile + auditory
- Activate background knowledge explicitly (don't assume incidental learning)
- Pre-teach vocabulary with real object connections
- Provide advance organizers and clear structure
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Multiple Means of Action and Expression
- Offer choice in output format: verbal, written (braille/large print/digital), demonstration, project, audio recording
- Provide assistive technology options: screen readers, speech-to-text, braille devices, talking calculators
- Allow alternative ways to show learning: oral presentations, tactile models, accessible digital projects
- Build in scaffolds and supports: graphic organizers, templates, checklists (in accessible formats)
- Explicitly teach self-monitoring and executive function strategies
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Multiple Means of Engagement
- Foster collaboration: peer partnerships, group work with clear roles, cooperative learning
- Provide choices that honor learner agency (format, topic, pace when appropriate)
- Set authentic, meaningful goals connected to student interests and Expanded Core Curriculum
- Build in frequent feedback loops (formative assessment, self-assessment)
- Develop self-determination skills: self-advocacy, decision-making, problem-solving
Lighting Considerations
Natural lighting preferred. Students with low vision may need additional task lighting (desk lamp) OR reduced light/glare (sunglasses, visor, positioning away from windows). Consult FVA for specific needs.
Reading/Writing Positioning
Provide reading/writing stand, slant board, clipboard for optimal positioning. Proper chair/table height. Reduces visual and physical fatigue.
Time Management
Pre-arranged breaks to reduce visual fatigue. Extended time for visually demanding tasks. Allow student to be visually focused for shorter periods. More time for exploring materials.
Follow the Leader
In line, direct student's attention to child in front using clothing/hair color. Student models what that child does (stopping, walking, turning), moving slowly for safety.
Transitions
Provide advance notice of transitions. Verbalize where class is going. Offer sighted guide or allow student to use mobility device (cane). Consistent routes.
Class Participation
Students identify themselves before speaking. Teacher calls on students by name. Avoid "raise your hand" without verbal component. Create predictable participation patterns.
Collaboration is Essential
Teaching students with visual impairments is a team effort. Work closely with: (1) Teacher of the Visually Impaired (TVI) - specialist in blindness/low vision education, (2) Orientation and Mobility (O&M) Instructor - teaches safe, independent travel, (3) Occupational Therapist - supports fine motor, daily living skills, (4) Parents/caregivers - valuable insights about student's strengths and needs, (5) Student - the expert on their own learning. Regular communication and collaborative planning ensure consistent, effective support.
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Expanded Core Curriculum (ECC)
In addition to academic curriculum, students with visual impairments require instruction in the Expanded Core Curriculum - skills sighted peers learn incidentally but must be explicitly taught:
- Compensatory Academic Skills: Braille, abacus, assistive technology, study skills, organizational strategies
- Orientation and Mobility: Safe, independent travel using white cane, spatial awareness, route planning
- Social Interaction Skills: Non-verbal communication, interpreting social cues, appropriate eye contact/body language
- Independent Living Skills: Personal care, food preparation, household management, money handling
- Recreation and Leisure: Accessible hobbies, sports, social activities; using community resources
- Career Education: Work habits, job-seeking skills, workplace accommodations, self-advocacy in employment
- Use of Assistive Technology: Screen readers, braille devices, magnification software, accessible apps
- Sensory Efficiency: Maximizing use of remaining vision, developing tactile and auditory skills
- Self-Determination: Self-advocacy, decision-making, goal-setting, understanding rights and responsibilities
Classroom teachers can support ECC by reinforcing skills taught by TVI, providing opportunities for independence, and embedding ECC goals into academic activities.
The citations below support the information and recommendations provided throughout this educator resource. All sources have been evaluated for credibility and relevance to Ontario secondary education contexts.
- [1] American Foundation for the Blind. (2023). Statistics about children and youth with vision loss. https://afb.org/research-and-initiatives/statistics/children-youth-vision-loss
- [2] Canadian National Institute for the Blind. (2018). What is blindness? https://www.cnib.ca/en/sight-loss-info/blindness/what-blindness
- [3] Gilbert, C., & Foster, A. (2001). Childhood blindness in the context of VISION 2020 - The right to sight. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 79(3), 227-232.
- [4] Hatton, D. D., Erickson, K. A., & Lee, D. B. (2010). Phonological awareness of young children with visual impairments. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 104(12), 743-748.
- [5] Kong, L., Fry, M., Al-Samarraie, M., Gilbert, C., & Steinkuller, P. G. (2012). An update on progress and the changing epidemiology of causes of childhood blindness worldwide. Journal of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus, 16(6), 501-507.
- [6] Levack, N., Stone, G., & Bishop, V. (1994). Low vision: A resource guide with adaptations for students with visual impairments (2nd ed.). Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired.
- [7] Ontario Ministry of Education. (2017). Ontario schools, kindergarten to grade 12: Policy and program requirements. Queen's Printer for Ontario. http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/document/policy/os/index.html
- [8] Ontario Ministry of Education. (2020). Special education in Ontario: Policy and resource guide, kindergarten to grade 12. Queen's Printer for Ontario. https://www.ontario.ca/document/special-education-ontario-policy-and-resource-guide-kindergarten-grade-12
- [9] Paths to Literacy. (2021). Strategies for teaching students who are blind or visually impaired. https://www.pathstoliteracy.org/strategies-teaching-students-who-are-blind-or-visually-impaired/
- [10] Sewell, D. (2005). Working with students who are blind or visually impaired in Texas. Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired.
- [11] Statistics Canada. (1988). Blindness and visual impairment in Canada. Minister of Supply and Services Canada. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2018/statcan/CS82-615-3-eng.pdf
- [12] Teaching Students with Visual Impairments. (2025). Accommodations & modifications. https://www.teachingvisuallyimpaired.com/accommodations--modifications.html
- [13] Wei, M., Elley, B., Hao, Q., Wang, Y., Zhao, F., Yin, Z., Fan, W., Wang, N., & Wang, J. (2022). Global prevalence and causes of visual impairment and blindness in children and adolescents from 1990 to 2019. Frontiers in Pediatrics, 10, 813856. https://doi.org/10.3389/fped.2021.813856
- [14] Willings, C. (2024). Differentiating instruction for students who are blind and with low vision. Teacher Education and Special Education, 47(3), 245-260. https://doi.org/10.1177/00400599221113003
- [15] World Health Organization. (2019). World report on vision. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241516570
- [16] World Health Organization. (2021). Understanding definitions of visual impairment and functional vision. Indian Journal of Ophthalmology, 68(12), 2526-2532. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijo.IJO_2847_20
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Additional Recommended Resources
- Perkins School for the Blind: Essential Assessments webcast series (FVA, LMA, ECC)
- American Printing House for the Blind: Catalog of accessible educational materials
- Texas School for the Blind and Visually Impaired: Annotated compendium of assessment tools
- National Center on Accessible Educational Materials: Guidelines for creating accessible content
- Paths to Literacy: Evidence-based instructional strategies and classroom adaptations